ELECTRONIC MEDIA AS INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS IN SOCIAL AND BUSINESS STUDIES AND AS INSTRUMENTS OF SOCIAL CHANGE:
EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM
Chinedu B. Ezirim
O. P. Nwanna-Nzewunwa
Michael I. Muoghalu
ABSTRACT
The study
evaluates the roles of electronic media (radio, computers, television,
projectors, videos, internet facilities and telecommunication facilities) in
teaching effectiveness and social change from the perspective of a developing
nation--
INTRODUCTION
Many authors
have written on the use of instructional materials both in teaching social and
business studies and engineering desired social change. These authors include Nwanna-Nzewunwa (2003), Kochhar
(1986), Alaka (1978), Heeks
(1999), Aguokogbuo (2000), Okafor
(1988), Mkpa (1989), McLuhan
(1964), Koert (2000), UNDP (1998), World Bank (1999),
and Greenwood (2001). More specifically, it was underlined in the works of
these authors that the use of instructional materials is a sine qua non in affecting and/or changing behavior of pupils and
students of every field, and especially social and business studies. It was
equally shown by some of the authors that these materials are important
catalysts of social re-engineering and change. Among the categories of
instructional materials, the electronic media have been described as the most
powerful weapon of social and business studies’ instruction both in schools and
anywhere social knowledge is impacted. The reason is not far-fetched: advances
in technology have brought electronic media to the forefront as the most
radical tools of globalization and social development. Such technological
breakthroughs as networked and non-networked; projected and non-projected;
visual, auditory, audio-visual electronic media are important landmarks in
knowledge transfer. With them both teaching and learning become very pleasant
experiences. Their power to teach and socialize has been varied as documented
in literature (Hepburn, 1998).
Electronic media possess some inherent
advantages that make them unique in social and business studies. For one thing,
they provide the teacher with interesting and compelling platforms for
conveying information since they motivate learners to want to learn more and
more. Also, by providing opportunities for private study and reference, the
learner’s interest and curiosity are increasingly stimulated. Further, the teacher
is assisted in overcoming physical difficulties that could have hindered his
effective presentation of a given topic. Teachers with low voices, for
instance, are enabled by the microphone system inherent in most electronic
media. They generally make teaching and learning easier and less stressful.
They are equally indispensable catalysts of social change and development.
Despite the inherent advantages of these
media to teach and socialize, the extent to which developing countries have
benefited in attaining teaching effectiveness and desired social change stands
to be questioned. Many of the studies in advanced countries have reported the
roles of electronic media in teaching effectiveness and social change (see for
instance, Hepburn, 1998). However, not many of such studies have documented the
experiences of less-developed countries of
In this
paper, we shall discuss the use of electronic media as instructional materials
in social and business studies. Before that, however, we shall make conceptual
clarifications of important terms implicated in the chosen topic, as well as
general considerations of instructional media generally used in social and
business studies. These are the mainstay of the second section of the paper. We
shall also review some studies and materials on the role of electronic media in
achieving social change or development. Subsequently, we describe the methods
and the procedure employed in generating and analyzing the primary data; we
also analyze the data generated from our field work and test relevant
hypotheses. Finally, we make necessary concluding remarks.
CONCEPTUAL
CLARIFICATIONS AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS
Some Important
Concepts
Certain important terms are implicated in the topic and we
consider it necessary to give operational definitions. They include social
studies, business studies, media, instructional media, electronic, and
electronic media. Many authors and commentaries have attempted to define social
studies, but for the purposes of this paper, we adopt the definition in Nwanna-Nzewunwa (2003) where Dike (1989) was quoted as
positing that social studies is: “… a new field of study that is concerned with
how man interacts and interrelates with his fellow man in his society and with
the physical and chemical factors in his environment. Social studies is also the study of the impact of science and technology on
man and his environment” (Kochhar, 1988:2). The above
definition is important to us especially when we can infer from it an emphasis
on the application of the products of science and technology (such as
electronic media and other instructional materials) in achieving desired social
interactions, and lubricating healthy relationships in the society. The point
being that even when social studies concerns itself with the effects of the
products of science and technology on the individual, society, and their
environment, use is still made of some of such products to make social studies
effective. Business studies, on the other hand, are seen as the science of how
man interacts with his fellow man in an environment where exchange, transfers,
production, distribution and consumption of goods and services “rule the
roost.”
The Oxford
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English defined media as “the main
means of communicating with large numbers of people, especially television,
radio, [and] newspapers.” Thus, all the ways, channels, tools and aids through
which information, instruction, and/or knowledge could be conveyed to learners
in typical social and business studies, can be seen as instructional media.
Instructional media, therefore, are such things (materials and equipment) that
can help the teacher to communicate effectively needed knowledge or ideas to
the students; such that at the end of such instruction, the student can be that
which the teacher predetermined in his objective statement. As Nwanna-Nzewunwa (2003:117) puts it, “instructional
materials are those materials that are used to arouse students’ learning.” They
are also called teaching aids, which brings life to learning (Alaka, 1978).
The term electronic is defined as something
having or operating with the aid of, many small components (e.g. microchips)
that control and direct an electric current.
Thus, electronic calculators, electronic keyboards, electronic
dictionaries, electronic bibles, are all examples of electronic equipment.
Electronics is the branch of science and technology that deals with the behavior
of electric currents in electronic equipment. Electronic media relates
materials, equipment, and processes that utilize electronic technology to pass
on information, knowledge, and ideas to people living in society. For instance,
radios, televisions, computers, e-mails, and projectors can be used by
instructors to educate their students effectively. They are special types of
instructional materials.
General
Considerations of Instructional Media
Good (1973) in Awotua-Efebo
(1999:212) defined instructional material as: “Any device with instructional
content or function that is used for teaching purposes, including books,
textbooks, supplementary reading materials, and audiovisual and other sensory
materials, scripts for radio and television instrumentation, programs for
computer-managed packaged sets of materials for construction or manipulation.”
From this perceptive, we can reaffirm that the term instructional media would
include any material or equipment that a teacher can profitably use to
facilitate teaching to and learning by his students. The design, development,
and art of producing such materials are a major concern of educational
technology (Vikoo, 2003). Thus, educational
technology has been viewed by Dike (1999:10) as “a systematic application of
scientific or organized knowledge to identifying and analyzing educational
problems, evolving and managing programs for solving these educational
problems.”
Notable
criteria abound in literature on the taxonomical basis of instructional media.
As in Vikoo (2003:139), such criteria for classifying
instructional materials include the degree of expertise/technical skills needed
for production, nature of materials, physiological parameter or sensory modality, whether or not
projection is involved, place the material is
produced, and miscellaneous characteristics. In terms of degree of
expertise, we have high technology materials such as computers, TV, internet,
etc., and low technology materials such as pictures, globes, printed (such as
textbooks), and non-printed materials such as radio (Alaezi,
1990). On the basis of physiological parameters, we talk of the particular
sensory modality of the learner, and thus classify instructional materials into
auditory visual, audio-visual, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, and kinesthetic
materials (Romiszowski, 1995). Visual materials
appeal to the sense of vision (the eye), such as still pictures. Auditory
materials appeal to the sense of hearing (the ears), such as radio, while
audio-visual materials appeal to both senses of hearing and vision, such as the
television. Tactile materials appeal to the sense of touching (the skin), such
as the Braille, while olfactory materials appeal to the sense of smell (the
nose), such as some chemical specimen. Gustatory materials involve the sense of
taste (the tongue), such as sample foods; while kinesthetic materials involve
sense of muscular coordination (the muscles) with game materials, such as
football as the media example. We shall not over-labor the general typology of
instructional materials as this has been treated by another group. We shall
restrict ourselves to electronic media, in the ensuing discussion.
Electronic Media
Used in Social and Business Studies
From our conceptual clarification, electronic media used in
social and business studies would include all instructional materials that are
electronically generated. They can be networked when a number of equipments or
materials are inter-connected or inter-related in lubricating information flow
(Koert, 2000); or non-networked, if otherwise. The
list of electronic media would include: radio, television, projectors, tape
recorders, video sets, computers, internet facilities, and telecommunication
facilities. We shall describe some of these media below and point out their implications
for teaching and learning social and business studies.
Radio
This is perhaps the most prominent audio teaching aid that is
used in social and business studies. The widespread use of radio sets is not
unconnected with the fact that many families own radio sets since it is readily
affordable. Its use is almost universal as it can be used in offices, market
places, and schools. Through radio broadcast, educational, cultural and social
knowledge can readily be communicated. Social re-orientation, political
convictions and education, and social change have all been accomplished using
this medium. The effectiveness of radio towards attaining these ends has been
confirmed in its ability to cover events appropriately and enable information
communicated to a wide audience at the same time, and where necessary
repeatedly. Seminars, lectures, workshops can be disseminated through the radio
channel effectively. Nwanna-Nzewunwa (2003)
enumerated a number of merits and demerits of radio as instructional materials,
which include: (a) It is far less expensive than TV (many schools can afford to
buy a radio set), (b) A very wide coverage of audience is possible through
radio lectures prepared by experts and can be relayed to a vast number of
people at the same time (e.g. IMTUNIALF program), (c) It can broadcast events
immediately as they happen (unlike television). Radio broadcasts are wordily
interesting because radio transmits music and drama.
The disadvantages of radio as an
instructional medium can equally be itemized to include: (a) It does not allow
students the opportunity to ask questions during educational broadcasts, (b)
Radio speakers talk at their own speed without knowing if the listeners are
following, (c) Educational broadcasts (other than a particular school program)
usually come on at odd times when some listeners may be too weak or tired to
listen, such as late at night. Some people learn better when they see and hear
the teacher at the same time.
The Tape Recorder
The tape recorder is an audio teaching aid. It uses cassette
tapes to record learning experiences in class or from radio or television
documentaries, which can be replayed in class or home. The cassette tape
recorder is a very popular instructional aid.
Aguokogbuo (2000:237) also gave the advantages
and disadvantages of tape recorders as follows: (a) The tape recorder is simple
to operate, (b) It is cheaper than most other
projected and/or electronic equipment, (c) It is usually portable and can be
transferred from one place to another. The disadvantages of tape recorders
include the following: (a) It is an audio medium and
appeals to the sense of hearing only, therefore limiting students’
comprehension of information. Compared with television, which appeals to the
sense of sight and sound, this is a big disadvantage, (b) Recorded tapes become
bad when not used often and could damage the play head of the player as a
result.
Computers and Internet Facilities
Computers are very efficient equipment used as instructional
materials in social and business studies. Several software and programs have
been developed over time for this purpose. Notable among these are statistical,
processing and spreadsheet packages for social sciences. With these and more,
social knowledge leading to behavioral changes is communicated to the learner.
The computer technology has made it possible for teachers and students to avail
themselves of internet facilities. Websites abound where instructors and
learners can visit in order to obtain needed information. Efficient teachers of
social and business studies in institutions of higher learning have effectively
impacted their students by referring them to designated websites where they
received instructions. Many libraries are now going on-line with the effect
that learners and researchers can visit them electronically by means of
computers instead of having to go physically to such centers. This is highly
innovative.
Telecommunication Equipment
This is equipment that utilizes the auditory mechanism to
convey information to the hearers. Some in this category now possess visual
properties, such as the GSM cell phones. The teacher can effectively utilize
telephones to communicate short messages, guidance counseling, and other
related issues. The use of telecommunication gadgets as instructional materials
is not widespread in less-developed countries (LDCs)
or rural areas; they are relatively expensive to maintain.
Projectors
Projectors are hardware equipment that enables learners to
vividly grasp the contents of software materials such as slides, filmstrips,
transparencies, papers and pictures (in the form of still pictures or motion
pictures). There are over-head projectors, slide projectors, and
computer-driven projectors. These are veritable learning or teaching aids in
social studies. The advantages of projectors lie in the powerful visual and
audio content of the devices. They have both high and low technology content.
REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE
It
is a settled fact in literature that a very important mission of teaching
social studies and other related fields is not only to stimulate desired social
behavior in the learner, but equally to facilitate social change and
development. The use of appropriate tools of instruction, such as electronic
media, speeds up the accomplishment of these objectives. Perhaps, this is the
point underscoring the argument of Koert (2000:1)
that “dialogue” or information exchange through networked (electronic) media
will have to play a role of increasing importance in development, whereby
networked media are in that way to facilitate rural networking and social
change”. The World Bank (1999:9) reported that “one of the greatest hardships
endured by the poor, and by many others, who live in the poorest countries, is
their sense of isolation. The new communication technologies promise to reduce
that sense of isolation and to open access to knowledge in ways unimaginable
not long ago.” Electronic media being an essential catalyst assists social
education in achieving such globalization ends. They are not only content
providers, but also facilitators and stimulators of social change (Koert, 2000:3).
Much earlier
(in the 1960s), Schramm (1964:19, 127, 131) submitted that the only way
developing economies could rapidly and effectively speed the flow of
information, offer education where it had never been offered before, and teach
literacy and technical skills very widely was to make full use of modern
communication, which electronic media represents. Invariably, electronic media
“are a liberating force because they can break the bonds of distance and
isolation and transport people from a traditional society to ‘the great
society,’ where all eyes are on the future and the faraway.” Thus, they can
create a climate for development, and contribute substantially to the amount
and kinds of information available to the people of a developing country
(Schramm, 1964; Koert, 2000).
Individual
studies on the roles of different types of technology (ICT) exist in literature
with varying results. For instance, Barr (1998:152-167) suggested that there is
a correlation between telephone densities and level of economic development. It
was equally suggested in the study that causality is inferable between basic
telecommunication services and socio-economic development. Koert
(2000) argued that Barr’s (1998) suggestions have not been fully established as
to the exact correlation between telephone density and the level of economic
development, or between increasing telephone density and economic growth. While
not disagreeing on the possibility of significant effects of the above
variables on the economy, Koert (2000) cautioned
against the tendency of over-estimating the contributions of basic
telecommunication services and the Internet on rural or social development.
Melkote (1991) also found that possible correlation
suggested to exist between mass media and socio-economic development (which
consequently placed the former to be an indicator and agent of modernization in
societies) by earlier studies, should not be taken to mean express causality.
Against a priori expectations of significant impact of both radio and
television, only radio was found to effect major change in information
provision to people in rural areas in developing economies. Television coverage
and use in rural areas are still limited and the focus is usually more of
entertainment than education.
Neil (1979), in Hepburn (1998:1), described
television and school as two competing learning systems, estimating that
educators were exhorted to make sure that students study television’s effects,
its biases, and its relationship to learning. Predicating on the above, Hepburn
(1998:1) observed that “the pervasive influence of electronic media in the
1990s has made obsolete the 1960s model of political and civic socialization
among American Youth.” She recommended that “time has come for social studies
teachers to update long-established views of learning to incorporate the
effects of electronic media among the youth.” Social scientists, she continued,
should “study socialization as a process wherein young people develop their
attitudes towards society, the government, and public affairs” (Hepburn,
1998:1).
Koert (2000) pointed out that specific characteristics of
the mass media may limit the contribution media can make to social change and
rural development. Against that background, FAO (1998:19-22) suggested that the
intrinsic limitations of individual media can be remedied by a combined use of
electronic media for a concerted communication effort, with the media each
addressing different aspects of that effort, in line with their individual
strengths, and mutually reinforcing their individual contributions. A very
interesting characteristic of electronic media relates to their ability to
reduce the level of equivocality in a message.
Communication theory assumes that a given message possesses a certain level of equivocality, and that some media are more capable of
reducing that equivocation than others. It is argued that the extent to which a
given electronic medium can reduce equivocality in a
message determines its richness. By implication, a rich medium is one which can
send messages which leaves less room for ambiguity in interpretation. Koert (2000) identified four criteria for richness of a
specific medium, namely, “opportunity for direct and speedy feedback;
possibility to use more types of signals (or cues), such as body language,
volume, and intonation; use of natural language; and the possibility to
specifically adapt the message to circumstances of individual reception.” When
a message is more complicated and voluminous, the chances are greater for
ambiguous interpretations. This would imply that the medium conveying such a
message deploy more of the above factors (see Trevino, Daft, and Lengel, 1990: 71-94).
Broadcasting mass media, such as radio and
television, in all their popularity exhibit some intrinsic shortcomings along
these lines. These include: “one-way communication with little possibility for
feedback, physical distance between sender and receiver, and reinforcement of
existing power structure.” Others include “the difficulty of retaining the
information for latter use and the susceptibility, at the same time, of
messages to alternative interpretations” (Koert,
2000:4). Notwithstanding, Mowlana and Wilson
(1990:151-158) insisted that radio remains the most used electronic mass medium
in rural areas of less-developed countries (LDCs).
FAO (1998:6) corroborated this position in its belief that the presence of
local radio stations coupled with the availability of small room for “easy and
affordable access” in relatively large geographical areas is a sine qua non for development. It is on
this note that local radio stations are seen as the most important mass media
when the question of contribution to rural development is raised. Television
stations, on the other hand, are based in major cities, or even in other
countries, which reinforces the negative aspect of electronic mass media. These
include the problems of one-way communication, lack of feedback opportunities,
and physical distance between sender and receiver. However, the television
offers the additional benefit of visual information, which makes possible a
slightly different type of information to be provided, since a less equivocal
message can be relayed using the combination of sound and vision. Television
equally shares with radio the difficulties associated with retention of
information (Koert, 2000).
METHOD OF STUDY
The study
followed the quasi-experimental research design which is very suitable for
studies in social and management sciences where respondents’ opinion are sought and evaluated for possible
inferences. The critical research instrument was the questionnaire. Construction
of the questionnaire followed the Likert scale of
rank-observations on a four-point maximum scale. The study covered a total of
600 teachers teaching in various schools that are located in the Niger Delta
Region of Nigeria. The first analysis of survey data was carried out by using
simple descriptive statistical techniques involving the construction and
analysis of frequency distribution tables, which were afterwards translated
into mean scores and percentages, where applicable.
The second set of tools of analysis involved
the use of simple and multiple regression analysis and the multivariate general
linear model (GLM). The GLM multivariate
procedure also provided regression analysis and analysis of variance for
multiple dependent variables by one or more factor variables or covariables. The procedure enables one to investigate
interactions between factors as well as the effects of individual factors.
Calculations were made of effects using Pillai’s
Trace, Wilks’ Lambda, Hotelling’s
Trace, and
The dependent variables relate
to two critical questions asked in the questionnaire in respect of extent of
occurrence of (a) teaching effectiveness and (b) social change in the Niger
Delta Region of Nigeria in the light of the use of electronic instructional
materials. The independent variables relate to the extent of the use of
individual electronic media (namely, radio, computers, television, projectors,
videos, internet facilities and telecommunication facilities) as instructional
materials in social and business studies in a region. The observations of the
ranked Likert-type questions constituted the values
used for the purposes of estimation of the implicated models.
PRESENTATION AND
ANALYSIS OF DATA
Preliminary
Information
Six hundred
teachers currently teaching social and business studies in various colleges or
high schools in the Niger Delta Region were studied; using the questionnaire as
the data generation tool. Out of the 600 questionnaire sets, 535 (or 89.17%)
were returned and utilized for this work. The mean age of the teachers was
32.63 years, while the modal class ranges between 26 and 30 years. This
suggests that a good number of the teachers had less than 15 years of
experience in terms of period of service. This, however, is not expected to
undermine the result of this study in any way. For instance, all the
respondents attested to their awareness and/or use of electronic media in one
form or the other as instructional materials. Over 77% of the teachers have had
at least moderately high exposure on the usage of these media in learning and
teaching. Only about 22% had little exposure (see Table 1).
Table 1: Extent of Exposure of Teachers to Electronic Media as
Instructional Materials
|
Response |
Weight |
Frequency |
Total |
Percentage |
|
Great |
3 |
65 |
195 |
26.90 |
|
Moderate |
2 |
185 |
370 |
51.03 |
|
Little |
1 |
160 |
160 |
22.07 |
|
None |
0 |
124 |
0 |
0 |
|
Total |
|
535 |
725 |
100.00 |
|
Source:
Computed from questionnaire responses. |
||||
Typology and Usage
of Electronic Media
The teachers
identified the major electronic instructional materials known to them to
include radio, computers, television, projectors, videos, internet facilities,
and telecommunication facilities. The extent to which these media are useful
for instructional purposes on a general note is summarized in Table 2. As revealed, the most utilized instructional
media in their perception of usefulness is radio, which scored a mean of 2.96
or mean percentage of 74.06%. This is followed by videos (s=
2.46 or 61.43%), then projectors (s = 2.36 or 59.05%). Others that were not highly scored
include computers (38.59%), internet facility (35.05%), telecommunication
facilities (35.28%), and television (27.67%). These observations tend to reveal
the prominence of radios, projectors and video facilities as important aids of
teaching among the teachers studied.
Table 2: The Use of Electronic
Media in Instructions in Social and Business Studies in Respondents’ Areas
|
Electronic Media |
Total Score |
Maximum Possible Score |
Mean Score |
% to Max. Score |
|
Radio |
1570 |
2120 |
2.96 |
74.06 |
|
Computers |
795 |
2060 |
1.54 |
38.59 |
|
Television |
571 |
2060 |
1.11 |
27.70 |
|
Projectors |
1240 |
2100 |
2.36 |
59.05 |
|
Videos |
1290 |
2100 |
2.46 |
61.43 |
|
Internet Facilities |
749 |
2140 |
1.40 |
35.05 |
|
Telecom Facilities |
754 |
2140 |
1.41 |
35.28 |
Instructional Materials and Teaching of Social and Business Studies
Table 3
reveals the extent to which electronic media has proved useful in teaching
social and business studies in the schools in this region of the country (66.58%
of the respondents claim that the extent of usefulness is great, while 28.25%
conceived it as moderately great). Only 5.24% said the extent was little;
generally, they all agreed that the media is useful in some way.
Table 3: Extent of their Usefulness in Teaching Social and Business
Studies
|
Responses |
Weight |
Frequency |
Total |
Percentage |
|
Great |
3 |
275 |
825 |
66.58 |
|
Moderate |
2 |
175 |
350 |
28.25 |
|
Little |
1 |
64 |
64 |
5.17 |
|
None |
0 |
16 |
0 |
0 |
|
Total |
|
530 |
1239 |
100.00 |
|
Source:
Computed from questionnaire responses. |
||||
Table 4: Factors Determining the Usefulness of Electronic Media
|
Responses |
Total Score |
Maximum Possible Score |
Mean Score |
% to Max. Score |
|
i) Appropriateness
to learners’ ages |
979 |
2020 |
1.94 |
48.51 |
|
ii) Relevance to lessons |
1495 |
2080 |
2.88 |
71.88 |
|
iii) Simplicity in presenting just essential
details |
1518 |
2080 |
2.92 |
73.08 |
|
iv) Adequate in size |
1040 |
2060 |
2.02 |
50.49 |
|
v) Interest in respect of learners |
1320 |
1960 |
2.69 |
67.34 |
|
vi) Simplification of concepts |
1605 |
2020 |
3.18 |
79.46 |
|
vii) Durability |
1404 |
2100 |
2.68 |
66.90 |
|
viii) Readily Available |
1380 |
2060 |
2.68 |
66.99 |
|
ix) Affordability |
1435 |
2140 |
2.68 |
67.06 |
|
x) Accuracy of materials presented |
1205 |
1980 |
2.43 |
60.86 |
|
xi) Clarity and beauty of materials |
1454 |
2058 |
2.83 |
70.63 |
Source: Computed from questionnaire
responses.
The respondents identified and ranked the
factors that determine the usefulness of electronic media as instructional
materials in teaching social and business studies. Their responses are
summarized in Table 4. As shown, the most important determinant was revealed to
be the ability of the media to simplify concepts taught (79.46%, s =
3.18). This was followed by simplicity in presentation (73.08, s =
2.92), relevance of the media to lessons (71.88, s = 2.88), and clarity and
beauty of materials (70.63%, s = 2.83). Other factors of fairly significant importance
are the ability to generate interest on the part of the learners (67.34%, s =
2.69), affordability (67%, s = 2.68), readily available (67%, s =
2.68), and durability (67%, s = 2.68). Adequacy in size, accuracy of materials
presented, and appropriateness to learners’ ages were only moderately mentioned
by the teachers scoring mean (s) of 2.02, 2.43, and 1.94 or mean-percentage scores of
50.49%, 60.85% and 48.51%, respectively. It is worthwhile to know how the
respondents would rank the various functions in light of the above criteria and
in order of perceived importance.
Table 5: Usefulness of
Instructional Materials in Teaching Social, Management, and Business Studies
|
Responses |
Total Score |
Maximum Possible Score |
Mean Score |
% to Max. Score |
|
i) Extension of experience available to learners |
1565 |
2080 |
3.01 |
75.24 |
|
ii) Provision of
compelling springboards to teachers |
1620 |
2040 |
3.18 |
79.41 |
|
iii) Assistance on
in overcoming physical difficulties to teachers |
1476 |
1960 |
3.01 |
75.26 |
|
iv) Stimulant to
students interest |
1685 |
2040 |
3.30 |
82.60 |
|
v) Provision for
differences of learners’ facilities |
1461 |
2040 |
2.86 |
71.57 |
|
vi) Ease of teaching/learning |
1664 |
2140 |
3.11 |
77.80 |
|
vii) Aid
communication process |
1620 |
2020 |
3.21 |
80.20 |
Source: Computed from questionnaire
responses.
Table 5 summarizes the responses as to the
ways in which the use of electronic media proves useful as instructional
materials in social and business studies. That these media extends the
experience available to learners was scored 75.24% (Mean = 3.01). Other
functions of these media as instructional materials are identified by the
respondents to include the provision of compelling spring boards to teachers
(79.41%, Mean = 3.18); assistance in
overcoming physical difficulties to teachers (75.26%, s =
3.01); provision for differences in learners’ faculties (71.57%, s =
2.86); stimulation of students’ interests (82.6%, s = 3.3); ease of
teaching/learning (77.8%, s = 3.11); and aiding communication process (80.2%, s =
3.21). On a four-point maximum Mean-scale (i.e. 100%), these results indicate
that all the identified functions of electronic media are seen to be highly
important by the respondents. However, the most important function remains that
electronic instructional materials stimulate students’ interest to learn.
Problems Attendant
to Use of Electronic Media
Certain
problems were identified to associate with the use of electronic materials in
the area under study (see Table 6). Among the six cardinal ones considered
grave by the teachers, the problems of high cost of acquisition and maintenance
was seen as the most serious; this was scored 80% (s = 3.2). Closely following
in the order of gravity are the problems of propagation of social vices among
students (79.29%, s
= 3.08), and enhancement of unethical behavior (70.59%, s = 2.82). It is of note
that the television, video, and internet facilities were seen as the worst
culprits to the problems of social vices and unethical behavior among students.
Other problems of moderate gravity were proneness to risks of obsolesce (67.14,
s
= 2.69) and requirement of long-usage–learning duration (58.42%, s =
2.34).
Table 6: Problems Associated with Electronic Media as Instructional
Materials
|
Responses |
Total Score |
Maximum Possible Score |
Mean Score |
% to Max. Score |
|
i) Acquisition / Maintenance cost |
1648 |
2060 |
3.20 |
80.10 |
|
ii) Ineffectiveness in
erratic power supply areas. |
1509 |
1960 |
3.08 |
77.04 |
|
iii) Propagate
social vices |
1665 |
2100 |
3.17 |
79.29 |
|
iv) Enhances Unethical
behavior |
1440 |
2040 |
2.82 |
70.59 |
|
v) Requires long
usage-learning duration |
1145 |
1960 |
2.34 |
58.42 |
|
vi) Prone to
obsolescence |
1410 |
2100 |
2.69 |
67.14 |
Source: Computed from questionnaire
responses.
Electronic Media,
Teaching Effectiveness, and Social Change
It is
believed that social and business studies when properly instructed are useful
instruments of generating desired social change. It is also posited that
electronic media enhances this instruction towards achieving desired social
change. Following this, questions were asked relating to the extent to which
this desirable societal objective is being achieved, in the light of the use of
electronic media in teaching. As depicted in Table 7, 36.55% of the teachers
studied believed that social change and development is being achieved in the
Niger Delta Region on a great note. Just over half (50.76%) of the respondents
said this change and development is being achieved moderately, while 12.69%
believed that only little change and development is being achieved. Generally,
it can be concluded that social change is being experienced in the area no
matter the extent. The critical questions, however, relate to the direction of
change and which of the electronic media was likely to have contributed most to
the attainment of social change and development. The other question relates to
whether or not teaching effectiveness is directly related to the attained
social change and vice versa.
Table 7: Achievement of Social Change and Development in
Respondents’ Areas
|
Responses |
Weight |
Frequency |
Total |
Percentage |
|
Great |
3 |
120 |
360 |
36.51 |
|
Moderate |
2 |
251 |
502 |
50.91 |
|
Little |
1 |
124 |
124 |
12.58 |
|
None |
0 |
40 |
0 |
0 |
|
Total |
|
535 |
986 |
100.00 |
|
Source: Computed from questionnaire responses. |
||||
TEST OF HYPOTHESES
Two main
composite null hypotheses naturally derive from the research questions. One,
there is no significant relationship between effectiveness in teaching social
and business studies and the use of individual electronic instructional media;
the other is that there is no significant relationship between desired social
change in the Niger Delta Region and the use of individual electronic
instructional media in teaching social and business studies. These hypotheses
were tested using results of the simple and multiple regression analysis as
well as those of the multivariate general linear model. These results are
depicted in Tables 8 through 10.
Table 8: Relationships between
Electronic Media and Teaching Effectiveness and Generational of Social Change
Panel A: Bivariate Simple Regression
Results
|
|
Teaching Effectiveness |
Social Change |
||
|
Variables |
F-statistic |
Probability |
F-statistic |
Probability |
|
Radio |
4.320 |
.040[sig.] |
4.287 |
.041(sig) |
|
Computer |
1.494 |
.224
(n.s) |
2.544 |
.114
(n.s) |
|
Television |
2.419 |
.123
(n.s) |
2.656 |
.106
(n.s) |
|
Projecting Equipment |
4.156 |
.044
(sig.) |
2.298 |
.133
(n.s) |
|
Video |
3.621 |
.060
(sig.) |
0.165 |
.685
(n.s) |
|
Internet |
2.362 |
.127
(n.s) |
1.884 |
.173
(n.s) |
|
Telecom Equipment |
0.041 |
.841
(n.s) |
0.587 |
.445
(n.s.) |
|
Panel B: Stepwise Multiple Regression Results |
||||
|
Include variable(s) |
t-statistic |
Probability |
F-statistic |
Probability |
|
Radio |
2.078 |
.040 |
2.895 |
.006(sig) |
|
Constant |
13.329 |
.000 |
2.661 |
.010(sig) |
|
Excluded variable(s) Computer |
0.512 |
.609 |
0.014 |
.989(n.s) |
|
Television |
0.457 |
.648 |
0.574 |
.569(n.s) |
|
Projecting Equipment |
1.531 |
.129 |
1.281 |
.206(n.s) |
|
Video |
1.046 |
.298 |
-0.740 |
.463(n.s) |
|
Internet |
1.099 |
.274 |
1.169 |
.248(n.s) |
|
Telecom |
-0.709 |
.480 |
0.396 |
.694(n.s) |
Source: SPSS computer results.
Panel A of Table 8
shows the relationship between individual electronic media and teaching
effectiveness on one side and generation of desired social change on the other,
while Panel B shows the step-wise multiple regression results of the same
relations. As indicated in the simple
regression relationship, three variables were seen to significantly relate with
instructional or teaching effectiveness. They are radio (F = 4.32, P = .04,
sig. at 5% level), projecting equipment (F = 4.156, P = .044, sig. at 5%
level), and video (F = 3.621, P = .06, sig. at 10% level). Other variables are
not significant. With these we are inclined to infer that there are significant
relationships between the use of radios, projecting equipment, and videos as instructional
materials and teaching effectiveness in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. On
the other hand, there are no significant relationships between the use of
computers, televisions, internet facilities, and telecomm equipments as
instructional materials and teaching effectiveness in colleges in the Niger
Delta Region of Nigeria. By implication, only radio, video, and projecting
equipments were seen by the teachers studied as contributing significantly to
their teaching effectiveness. The other electronic media are not seen as of any
significant effect in the area under study.
Table 9: Result of the
Multivariate Tests of the General Linear Model
|
Effect |
Type of Test |
Value |
F |
Sig. |
|
Intercept |
Pillai’s
Trace Wilks’
Lambda Hotelling’s
Trace |
.353 .647 .546 .546 |
11.744a 11.744a 11.744a 11.744a |
.000 .000 .000 .000 |
|
Radio |
Pillai’s
Trace Wilks’
Lambda Hotelling’s
Trace |
.147 .853 .173 .173 |
3.718a 3.718a 3.718a 3.718a |
.032 .032 .032 .032 |
|
Computer |
Pillai’s
Trace Wilks’
Lambda Hotelling’s
Trace |
.074 .926 .080 .080 |
1.729a 1.729a 1.729a 1.729a |
.190 .190 .190 .190 |
|
TV |
Pillai’s
Trace Wilks’
Lambda Hotelling’s
Trace |
.070 .930 .075 .075 |
1.608a 1.608a 1.608a 1.608a |
.212 .212 .212 .212 |
|
Projectors |
Pillai’s
Trace Wilks’
Lambda Hotelling’s
Trace |
.111 .889 .125 .125 |
2.682a 2.682a 2.682a 2.682a |
.080 .080 .080 .080 |
|
Video |
Pillai’s
Trace Wilks’
Lambda Hotelling’s
Trace |
.045 .955 .047 .047 |
1.018a 1.018a 1.018a 1.018a |
.370 .370 .370 .370 |
|
Internet |
Pillai’s
Trace Wilks’
Lambda Hotelling’s
Trace |
.88 .912 .096 .096 |
2.063a 2.063a 2.063a 2.063a |
.140 .140 .140 .140 |
|
Telecom |
Pillai’s
Trace Wilks’
Lambda Hotelling’s
Trace |
.059 .941 .063 .063 |
1.349a 1.349a 1.349a 1.349a |
.270 .270 .270 .270 |
a.Exact statistic; b Design: Intercept + Radio + Computer
+ TV+ Proj. + Video + Internet + Telecom
From Table 8, we see that only the use of
radio facility as the only significant electronic media that relates with
social change variables (F = 4.287, P = .041 sig. at 5%). The other variables
are not significant. Thus, we can infer that there is a significant
relationship between the use of radio as instructional materials and the
generation of desired social change in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. The
opposite inference is true for the use of the other electronic media in
generating desired social change. This result is not surprising considering the
level of development of the country in general and the Niger Delta Region in
particular. The level of poverty as reflected by the low per capita income is
another reason for the low use, as it were, of the other electronic media which
are considered expensive. The neglect of her schools in terms of funding by the
government is yet another reason. It is hoped that in the near future the trend
will improve.
The results of the step-wise multiple
regression analysis reveals that only the radio facility is significant at a 5%
level for both dependent variables (see Table 8). This result was also
corroborated by the estimation results of the general linear model. For instance, as shown in Table 9, only the
radio was seen as the most effective medium used to generate desired social
change in the area. The results of Pillai’s Trace, Wilks’ Lambda, Hotelling’s Trace
and Roy’s Largest Root tests of the Multivariate General Linear Model confirms
the use of radio as the most effective electronic media in bringing about
teaching effectiveness and electronic media (F = 3.718 for each of the above
test; P = .032, sig.) (see Table 9). The other media
were not seen to have contributed significantly towards positive social change.
The reasons for these are not far-fetched. As already pointed out in the
section on theoretical background, the radio is the commonest, most widely used
and perhaps cheapest of all the electronic media under study. Every family, to
say the least, possesses a transistor radio. Other media are seen to be
expensive to the average family, which is still battling with poverty in the
region. These results agree with the result of a similar study by Koerted (2000:6) using the
Table 10: General Linear
Model Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
|
Source |
Dependent Variable |
F |
Sig. |
|
Corrected Model |
Teaching Schange |
.610 2.370 |
.744 .038 |
|
Intercept |
Teaching Schange |
18.102 3.892 |
.000 .055 |
|
Radio |
Teaching Schange |
.047 7.352 |
.829 .010 |
|
Computer |
Teaching Schange |
.000 3.499 |
.999 .068 |
|
TV |
Teaching Schange |
.534 2.477 |
.469 .123 |
|
Projector |
Teaching Schange |
1.486 3.463 |
.229 .069 |
|
Video |
Teaching Schange |
.169 2.014 |
.683 .163 |
|
Internet |
Teaching Schange |
.126 3.900 |
.724 .055 |
|
Telecomm |
Teaching Schange |
1.769 .722 |
.190 .400 |
|
Error |
Teaching Schange |
|
|
|
Total |
Teaching Schange |
|
|
|
Corrected Total |
Teaching Schange |
|
|
The next question is whether or not, by
using electronic media, teaching effectiveness brings about desired social
change in the region under study or vice versa. The use of the multivariate
General Linear Model tests was employed. The results as in Table 10 show that,
in general, by the instrumentality of all the electronic media, proper
goal-directed teaching reserves immense potentials to bring about desired
social change. This point is lent credence by the result of the corrected model
of between subject effects (F = 2.37; P = .038, sig.) in the Niger Delta Region
of Nigeria. On the other hand, the tests of between-subject effects shows that
giving the use of the identified electronic media, social change does not bring
about teaching effectiveness (F = .61; P = .744, n.s).
Thus, as a priori expected, whereas effective teaching can cause desired social
change, the reverse position is not substantiated by the results of this study.
The possibility and general ability of effective teaching to generate desired
social change in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria is enhanced by the use of
radio (F = 7.38; P = .010), and marginally by computer (F = 3.499, P = .68,
sig. at 10% level), projectors (F = 3.46, P = .069, sig. at 10% level), and
internet facilities (F = 3.90, P = .055, sig. at 10% level). These imply that,
should the country be serious about attaining level of teaching effectiveness
that would generate desired social change, emphasis should be placed not only
on radio, projectors and videos as revealed in the earlier analysis, but also
on computers and internet facilities. True to the fact, these latter media
happen to be the most important agents of globalization at the moment; thus,
their full potentials in facilitating socialization are yet to be tapped to
real advantage in
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The study and its ensuing analysis identified radio,
computers, television, projectors, videos, internet facilities and telecommunication
facilities as the main types of electronic media known to and used for teaching
in schools domicile in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Among these media,
radio is revealed as the most potent instructional material in achieving teaching
efficiency and generating desired social change. This was confirmed by the
results of the simple and multiple regression analysis, as well as the tests
associated with the general linear model. However, the F-test results of the
simple linear regression models indicate that projectors and videos exerted
significant effects in enhancing teaching effectiveness. Also, the tests of
between-subject effect of the two dependent variables (teaching effectiveness
and desired social change) further reveal that computers, projectors, and
internet facilities as having inherent capabilities of aiding teaching
effectiveness that would redound to the attainment of desired social change.
These inherent potentials can be tapped to great advantage. These results have
obvious implication for policy: while the use of radio instructions should be
continued, the use of the other media that have more powerful audio-visual
effects can be encouraged. The government must make a deliberate policy of
providing these facilities to needy schools, colleges, and universities. The
funds made available by the government to universities in the country for
Direct Teaching and Laboratory Facilities (DTLF) should be channeled to provide
these media with priority. Colleges and polytechnics should be similarly
assisted – each according to the level of need.
It was also
shown by the results that whereas teaching effectiveness is a very important
factor in generating desired social change, the result did not indicate that
the attainment of social change would give rise to teaching effectiveness in
the area studied. The relationship was not that of “bi-causational.” This implies that
generating teaching effectiveness is not the end itself as far as the use of instructional
materials are concerned, but a means to the end. The actual end includes the
attainment of social change and development. This reinforces the critical
purpose of teaching: to influence behavior or to achieve behavioral changes in
the society. A policy implication of this result is that every concerted effort
should be made to encourage teachers to be more effective in their chosen duty.
Encouragement can be in the way of sponsored skills enhancement programs, such
as by organizing periodic further teachers’ training programs that would
educate them more on the use of modern instructional delivery strategies and
materials. It is expected that when they get better equipped, they become more
effective, and the ultimate effect would naturally be transmitted to the
learners and the society at large, in terms of desired social change.
REFERENCES
Aguokogbuo, C. M. (2000), Curriculum Development and Implementation
for
Akinboye,
J. O. (1976), Psychology of Study: Implications for Counseling, Careers,
Akpan,
U. J. (1987), Social Studies in
Alaezi,
O. (1990), Groundwork of Teaching
Strategies in
Alaka,
P. (1978), Social Studies in
Awotua-Efebo,
E.B. (1999), Effective Teaching:
Principles and Practice.
Barr, D. (1998),
Integrated Rural Development through Telecommunications, in D. Richardson and
L. Paisley (Eds.), The First Mile of
Connectivity: Advancing Telecommunications for Rural Development through a
Participatory Communication Approach.
Dike,
H. I. (1989), Modern trends in the Teaching of Social Studies.
Dike,
H. I. (1989), Strategies for Producing
Instructional Materials. Owerri: Joewam Publishers.
Dike, H. I. (1999), A Textbook of Educational Technology (2nd
ed).
Ezirim,
B. C. (2005), The 21st Century Child:
Privileges and Promise, Perils and Problems, Text of a Speech presented on the occasion of the Annual Speech / Prize
Award Day of the
FAO (1998), Knowledge and Information for Food Security
in
Heeks,
R. (1999), Information and Communication Technologies, Poverty and Development, Working Paper Series, Paper No. 5,
Hepburn, M. A. (1998),
The Power of the Electronic Media in the Socialization of Young Americans:
Implications for Social Studies Education, The
Social Studies, March 01.
Kochhar,
S. K. (1988), Teaching of Social Studies.
Koert,
Robin Van (2000), Providing Content and Facilitating Social Change: Electronic
Media and Rural Development Based on Case Material from Peru, First Monday, Vol. 5, No. 2, February; www.Google.com Search Engine,
Accessed 13th September, 2005.
McLuhan, M. (1964), Understanding Media.
Melkote,
S. R. (1991), Communication for
Development in the
Mkpa, M.A. (1987), Curriculum Development and Implementation. Owerri: Totan Publishers Ltd.
Mowlana,
L. and Wilson, L. (1990), The Passing of Modernity: Communication and the
Transformation of Society.
Neil (1979) in Hepburn,
Mary A. (1998), The Power of the Electronic Media in
the Socialization of Young Americans: Implications for Social Studies
Education, The Social Studies; March
01.
Nurosis
(2001), Statistical Package for Social
Sciences for Windows Release 10.0.1 Standard Version.
Nwanna-Nzewunwa,
O. P. (2003), Trends in Teaching Social Studies: Instructional Materials,
Evaluation and Continuous Assessment, in Essentials of Social Studies for
Undergraduate Students, Institute of Education, University of Port
Harcourt, Port Harcourt.
Romiszowski,
A. J. (1995), Designing Instructional
Systems.
Schramm,
W. (1964), Mass Media and National
Development.
Trevino, L, R. Daft,
& R. Lengel (1990), Understanding Manager’s Media
Choices: A Symbolic Interactionist Perspective, in J.
Fulk and C. Steinfeld
(Eds.), Organizations and Communication
Technology, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, pp. 71-94.
UNDP (1998), Human Development Report 1998.
Vikoo, Baribor
(2003), Learning Theories and
Instructional Processes. Owerri:
Springfield Publishers Ltd.
World Bank (1999), World Development Report: Knowledge for
Development.